Since more than 50 years there has been increasing interest in improving symbols or pictograms on a scientific basis. Below we present a selection of papers, reports and books related to tests and design of graphic symbols as well as related subjects (e.g. safety labelling, warnings).
The current selection is far from complete, but we are adding papers day by day and more will follow...
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Abdu-Aguye, S.N., Sadiq, A.M., Shehu, A., & Mohammed, E. (2023)
Guessability of standard pharmaceutical pictograms in members of the Nigerian public,
Exploratory Research in Clinical and Social Pharmacy, Volume 9, 2023, 100240, ISSN 2667-2766, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcsop.2023.100240.
Abdullah, R., & Hübner, R. (2006)
Pictograms, icons & signs: A guide to information graphics. London: Thames & Hudson.
Adams, A.S. (1999)
Usability testing in information design. In Zwaga, H.J.G., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H.C.M. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. Design and research perspectives. London, Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
Adams, A., Bochner, S., & Bilik, L. (1998)
The effectiveness of warning signs in hazardous work places: cognitive and social determinants. Applied ergonomics, 29(4), 247–254.
Adams, A., Bright, J. & Searle, B. (1998)
Signs of trouble to come? A behavioural assessment of the effectiveness of road warning signs. University of New South Wales/Federal Office of Road Safety.
Adams, A.S. & Montague, M. (1994)
Testing warning signs: Conspicuity and discrimination. Information Design Journal, 7(3), 203–210.
Aicher, O. & Krampen, M. (1977)
Zeichensysteme der visuellen Kommunikation: Handbuch für Designer, Architekten, Planer, Organisatoren. Stuttgart: Verlagsanstalt Alexander Koch.
AIGA (1993)
Symbol Signs. NewYork: The American Institute of Graphic Arts.
Akerboom, S.P., Mijksenaar, P. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1997)
'Keep this (plastic) cover away from small children to avoid suffocation': Development of a comprehensible warning symbol. Leiden, The Netherlands: Centre for Safety Research.
Al-Rousan, T.M. & Umar, A.A. (2021)
Assessment of Traffic Sign Comprehension Levels among Drivers in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, UAE. Infrastructures 2021, 6, 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures6090122
Allen, R.W., Parseghian, Z., & van Valkenburgh, P.G. (1980)
Age Effects on Symbol Sign Recognition. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration (FHWA-RD-80-126).
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Accident Prevention Tags. ANSI Z535.5, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1978)
American National Standard Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways. ANSI D6. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1972)
American National Standard Specifications for Accident Prevention Signs. ANSI Z535.1. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Criteria for Safety Symbols. ANSI Z535.3, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Environmental and Facility Safety Signs, ANSI Z535.2, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1988)
Hazardous Industrial Chemicals– Precautionary Labeling. ANSI Z129.1. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Product Safety Signs and Labels, ANSI Z535.4, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Safety Color Code, ANSI Z535.1, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1993)
American National Standard for Hazardous Industrial Chemicals – Material Safety Data Sheets – Preparation: Z400.1-1993. New York: American National Standards Institute. (June 3).
American National Standards Institute (1994)
American National Standard for Hazardous Industrial Chemicals – Precautionary Labeling: Z129.1. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
An, D. & Chan, E.H.W. (2017)
Investigating the Comprehension of Public Symbols for Wayfinding in Transit Hubs in China. In: Rau, PL. (eds) Cross-Cultural Design. CCD 2017. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 10281. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57931-3_24
Anderson, N.S. & Leonard, J.A. (1958)
The Recognition, Naming and Reconstruction of Visual Figures as a Function of Contour Redundancy. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1958, 56, 262-270.
Ayres, T.J., Gross, M.M., Wood, C.T., Horst, D. P., Beyer, R. R. & Robinson, J.N. (Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.) (1994)
What is a Warning and When will it Work?, Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Ayres, T.J., Gross, M.M., Horst, D.P. & Robinson N. (1992)
A Methodological Taxonomy for Warning Research, Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 499-503.
Babbitt Kline, T.J., Ghali, L.M., Kline, D.W. & Brown S. (1990)
Visibility distance of highway signs among young, middle-aged, and older observers: icons are better than text. Human Factors. 32 (5), 609‐619.
Baber, C., & Wankling, J. (1992)
An experimental comparison of text and symbols for in-car reconfigurable displays. Applied Ergonomics, 23(4), 255-262.
Barbara, C. & Gill, R. (1987)
Human Factors and Warning Label Design, Interface 87 91-94.
Barnard, P. & Marcel, T. (1984)
Representation and Understanding in the Use of Symbols and Pictograms. In: Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.): Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd, pp. 37-75.
Barros, I. M., Alcântara, T. S., Mesquita, A. R., Santos, A. C., Paixão, F. P., & Lyra, D. P., Jr (2014).
The use of pictograms in the health care: a literature review. Research in social & administrative pharmacy : RSAP, 10(5), 704–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2013.11.002
Barros, I.M., Alcântara, T.S., Mesquita, A.R., Bispo, M., Rocha, C., Moreira, V. & Lyra, D. P., Jr (2014).
Understanding of pictograms from the United States Pharmacopeia Dispensing Information (USP-DI) among elderly Brazilians. Patient preference and adherence. 8. 1493-501. 10.2147/PPA.S65301.
Barstow, B.A., Vice, J., Bowman, S., et al. (2019)
Examining perceptions of existing and newly created accessibility symbols. Disability and Health Journal 2019, 12(2): 180-186.
Bekiaris, E., Wiethoff, M., & Gaitanidou, E. (Eds.) (2011)
Infrastructure and Safety in a Collaborative World: Road Traffic Safety. Springer Science & Business Media.
Berger, C.M. (Ed.) (2005)
Wayfinding: Designing and Implementing Graphic Navigational Systems. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision.
Bettman, J., Payne, J. & Staelin, R. (1986)
Cognitive Considerations in Designing Effective Labels of Presenting Risk Information, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 5:1-28. Cited in Andrews, Netemeyer and Durvasula 1991.
Boersema, T. (2000)
Visual conspicuity in complex, naturalistic images. Dissertation, Delft University of Technology.
Boersema, T. (2003)
Graphical symbols for use on banknotes: comprehensibility judgment test. Delft: Delft University of Technology Industrial Design.
Boersema, T. (2006)
Comprehensibility of graphical symbols for clarifying security features.
In D. de Waard, KA. Brookhuis, & A. Toffetti (Eds.), Developments in human factors in transportation, design and evaluation (pp. 333-344). Maastricht: Shaker Publishing.
Boersema, T. & Adams, A.S. (2017)
Does my symbol sign work? International standards for designing and testing graphical symbols.
In: Black, A., Luna, P., Lund, O. & Walker, S. (Eds.) Information design: research and practice. Abingdon: Routledge - Taylor & Francis Group, p. 303-314.
Boersema, T. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1985)
The Influence of Advertisements on the Conspicuity of Routing Information. Applied Ergonomics, 1985, 16/4, 267-273.
Boersema, T., Zwaga, H.J.G. & Adams, A.S. (1989)
Conspicuity in realistic scenes: an eye-movement measure. Applied Ergonomics 20.
Boersema, T. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1989)
Selecting comprehensible warning symbols for swimming pool slides. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting, pp. 994-998. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
Bogett, W.R. & Rodriguez, L. (1987)
On the Influence of a Perception of Danger on the Effectiveness of Warnings for Product Users. Hazard Prevention 23(4):19-24.
Bolek, J. & Cowgill, J. (2005)
Development of a symbol system for use in the health care industry. Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Designing for User eXperience, November 2005.
Brainard, R.W., Campbell, R.J. & Elkin, E.H. (1961)
Design and Interpretability of Road Signs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1961, 45, 130-136.
Bräuer, E. (1977)
Die Wirkung verschiedener Darstellungen von Verbotspiktogrammen. Dissertation, Psychology Department, University of Vienna.
Braun, C.C., Kennedy, R. S. & Silver, N.C. (1994)
Signal Word and Color Specifications for Product Warnings: An Isoperformance Application. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Meeting:1104-1108.
Braun, C.C. & Silver, N.C. (1995)
Interaction of Signal Word and Colour on warning Labels: Differences in Perceived Hazard and Behavioural Compliance. Ergonomics 38(11):2207-20.
Braun, C.C. & Silver, N.C. (1994)
Differences in Behavior Compliance as a Function of Warning Color. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting:379-383.
Braun, C.C., Sansing, L. & Silver, N.C. (1994)
The Interaction of Signal Word and Color on Warning Labels: Differences in Perceived Hazard. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting:831-835.
Braun, C.C., Silver, N.C. & Stock, B.R. (1992)
Likelihood of Reading Warnings: The Effect of Fonts and Font Sizes. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 36th Annual Meeting:926-930.
Brelsford, J.W., Wogalter, M.S. & Scoggins, J.A. (1994)
Enhancing Comprehension and Retention of Safety-Related Pictorials. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting:836-840.
Bresnahan, T.F. & Bryk, J. (1975)
The Hazard Association Values of Accident-Prevention Signs", Professional Safety (January):17-25.
Brigham, F.R. (1998)
International Standardisation of Graphical Symbols for Consumer Products. In: John Smith (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics. London: Taylor and Francis, pp. 8-12.
Brigham, F.R. (2000/2001)
Graphical Symbols for Consumer Products in an International Context.
Information Design Journal, 10(2), pp. 115-123.
Brimmell, C. (1987)
Study Reveals that Many Safety Symbols Warning of Hazards are Not Understood. Consensus (14)1:5-6.
Broadbent, D.E. (1977)
Language and Ergonomics. Applied Ergonomics 8(1):15-18.
Browne, Stammers (1987)
The evaluation and generation of icons for a computer drawing package.
Contemporary Ergonomics, 251-256.
Brugger, Ch. (1987)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols, ISO 1986 Test Series: Comprehension/Recognition Test. Vienna: ISO/TC 145/SC 1.
Brugger, Ch. (1990)
Advances in the International Standardization of Public Information Symbols. Information Design Journal, 1990, 6/1, 79-88.
Brugger, Ch. (1999)
Public information symbols: a comparison of ISO testing procedures. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Brugger, Ch. (2000)
Safety Signs - Problems of Current European Legislation. IDNews 12, April 2000.
Brugger, Ch. (2000)
Verständlichkeitstest ON 2000. Report to the Austrian Standards Institute, Vienna, November 2000.
Brugger, Ch. (2001)
Recent Activities Concerning the Standardization of Public Information Symbols and Safety Signs. IDNews 20, July 2001.
Brugger, Ch. (2001)
Elevator - Comments on Various Concepts. IDNews 20, July 2001.
Brugger Ch. (2005)
Verständlichkeit von Grafischen Symbolen und Piktogrammen. In: Scholz M., Helmbold U. (Eds.): Bilder lesen lernen. Bildwissenschaft, vol 16. Deutscher Universitätsverlag, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-663-09413-5_2
Brugger Ch. (2006)
Comprehensibility Judgment Test. Report In-Safety, Contract No 506716.
Brugger, Ch. & Simlinger, P. (1984)
Zur Entwicklung normfähiger graphischer Symbole für die Öffentlichkeitsinformation. Semiotische Berichte, 1984, 8/1, 23-39.
Cahill, M.C. (1975)
Interpretability of Graphic Symbols as a Function of Context and Experience
Factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60(5), 376-380.
Cahill, M.C. (1976)
Design Features of Graphic Symbols Varying in Interpretability. Perceptual and Motor Skills (42)2:647-653.
Cairney, P.T. & Sless, D. (1982)
Evaluating the Understanding of Symbolic Roadside Information Signs. Australian Road Research, 1982, 12/2, 97-102.
Calori, C., & Vanden-Eynden, D. (2015)
Signage and wayfinding design: A complete guide to creating environmental graphic design systems. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Caron, J.P., Jamieson, D.G. & Dewar, R.E. (1980)
Evaluating Pictographs Using Semantic Differential and Classification Techniques. Ergonomics 23(2):137-146.
Choi, J. & Tay, R. (2008)
Development of pictograms for dynamic traffic control systems in South Korea. Journal of Advanced Transportation. 42. 23 - 43.
Christ, R.E. (1975)
Review and Analysis of Color Coding Research for Visual Displays. Human Factors (17)6:542-570.
Christian, A. (2017)
Piktogramme - Tendenzen in der Gestaltung und im Einsatz grafischer Symbole. Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag.
Cohen, A.L., Schmitt, N. & Colligan, M.J. (1989)
Aspects of Health Risk Communication: Material Safety Data Sheets for Informing Workers of Chemical Hazards at Work. Paper presented at the National Safety Council Annual Congress, Chicago.
Collins, B.L. (1982)
The Development and Evaluation of Effective Symbol Signs. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBS BSS 141, May 1982.
Collins, B.L. (1983)
Use of Hazard Pictorials/Symbols in the Mineral Industry. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 83-2732, September 1983.
Collins, B.L. (1983)
Evaluation of Mine-Safety Symbols. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 27th Annual Meeting:947-949.
Collins, B.L., Dahir, M.S. & Madrzykowski, D. (1990)
Evaluation of exit signs in clear and smoke conditions. NISTIR 4399, Gaithersburg, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Collins, B.L. & Lerner, N.D. (1980)
The Assessment of Safety Symbol Understandability by Different Testing Methods. Washington, D.C.: US National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 80-2088.
Collins, B.L. & Lerner, N.D. (1982)
Assessment of Fire-Safety Symbols. Human Factors, 24(1), 75-84.
Collins, B.L., Lerner, N.D. & Pierman, B.C. (1982)
Symbols for Industrial Safety. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 82-2485, April 1982.
Collins, B.L. & Lerner, N.D. (1983)
An Evaluation of Exit Symbol Visibility. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 83-2675, April 1983.
Collins, B.L. & Pierman, B.C. (1979)
Establishing Ways to Decide Whether People Understand Symbols. Industrial Design, 1979, 26, 48-50.
Collins, B.L. & Pierman, B.C. (1979)
Evaluation of Safety Symbols. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 79-1760, June 1979.
Covello, V., Winterfeldt, D. & Slovic, P. (1986)
Risk Communication: A Review of the Literature. Risk Abstracts 3(4):171-182.
Davies, S., Haines, H., & Norris, B. (1997)
The role of pictograms in the conveying of consumer safety information. London: Department of Trade and Industry, Consumer Affairs and Competition Policy Directorate.
Davies, S., Haines, H., Norris, B. & Wilson, J. R. (1998)
Safety pictograms: are they getting the message across? Applied Ergonomics, 29 (1), 15-23.
De La Mare, G. & Walker, J. (1962)
The Visibility of Direction Indicators. Ergonomics, 5(4), 573-579.
Dejoy, D.M. (1989)
Consumer Product Warnings: Review and Analysis of Effectiveness Research. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings:936-940.
Deppa, S.W. & Martin, B.J. (1997)
Human Factors behind the Improved ANSI Z535.3 Label Standard for Safety Symbols. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 41(2), 816–820. https://doi.org/10.1177/107118139704100219
Desaulniers, D.R. (1991)
An examination of consequence probability as a determinant of precautionary intent. Ph.D. diss., Rice University, Houston.
Desaulniers, D.R. (1993)
Layout, Organization, and the Effectiveness of Consumer Product Warnings. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Dewar, R.E. (1976)
The Slash Obscures the Symbol on Prohibitive Traffic
Signs. Human Factors, 18, 253-258.
Dewar, R. (1999)
Design and evaluation of public information symbols. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Dewar, R. & Arthur, P. (1999)
Warning of water safety hazards with sequential pictographs. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday
use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Dewar, R.E. & Berger, W. (1972)
Methodology in Traffic Sign Evaluation. Paper presented at the International Conference on Highway Sign Symbology, Washington, D.C., June 1972.
Dewar, R.E. & Ells, J.G. (1974)
Comparison of Three Methods for Evaluating Traffic Signs. Transportation Research Records, 503, 38-47.
Dewar, R.E. & Ells, J.G. (1977)
The Semantic Differential as an Index of Traffic Sign Perception and Comprehension. Human Factors, 19(2), 183-189.
Dewar, R. & Ells, J. (1984)
Methods of Evaluation of Traffic
Signs. In: Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.): Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Dewar, R.E., Ells, J.G. & Mundy, G. (1976)
Reaction Time as an Index of Traffic Sign Perception. Human Factors, 1976, 18, 381-392.
Dewar, R.E., Ells, J.G., & Cooper, P.J. (1977)
Evaluation of Roadway Guide Signs at a Large Airport. Transportation Engineering, 1977, 47(6), 19-23.
Dewar, R.E., Kline, D.W. & Swanson, H.A. (1994)
Age differences in comprehension of traffic sign symbols. Transportation Research Record 1456, 1-10.
Dewar, R.E. & Swanson, H.A. (1972)
Recognition of Traffic Control Signs. Highway Research Board. 1972, 414, 16-23.
Dingus, R.A., Wreggit, S.S. & Hathaway, J.A. (1993)
Warning Variables Affecting Personal Protective Equipment Use. Safety Science (16) 5/6:655-673.
Dionne, E.D. (1979)
Effective Safety Signs and Posters. National Safety News (120)4, 48-52.
Dixon, P. (1982)
Plans and Written Directions for Complex Tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21, 70-84.
Donner, K.A. & Brelsford, J.W. (1988)
Cueing hazard information for consumer products. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting, Human Factors Society, 532-535.
Dorris, A.L. (1991)
Product warnings in theory and practice. Some questions answered and some answers questioned. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 2, 1073-1077.
Dorris, A.L. & Purswell, J.L. (1977)
Warnings and Human Behavior: Implications for the Design of Product Warnings. Journal of Product Liability, no. 1, 255-264.
Dowse, R. & Ehlers, M.S. (2001)
The evaluation of pharmaceutical pictograms in a low-literate South African population, Patient Education and Counseling, 45(2), 87-99.
Dreyfuss, H.
Symbol Sourcebook: An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic Symbols. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Duarte, E. & Rebelo, F. (2006)
Safety Signs Comprehension and the Context Effect. IEA 2006 – The 16th World Congress on Ergonomics, Meeting Diversity in Ergonomics. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Elsevier Ltd.
Duarte, M. E. C., Rebelo, F., & Wogalter, M. S. (2010)
Virtual reality and its potential for evaluating warning compliance. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries, 20(6), 526-537.
Duffy, T.M. (1985)
Chapter 6: Readability formulas: What's the use? In Designing Usable Texts, T.M. Duff, and R. Wailer (Eds.) Orlando: Academic Press, Inc., 113-140.
Dunlap, G.L., Granda, R.E. & Kustas, M.S. (1986)
Observer perceptions of implied hazard: safety signal word and color words. IBM Technical Report (T 00.3428)
Easterby, R.S. & Graydon, I.R. (1981)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols: ISO 1979/80 Test Series. Part II: Comprehension/Recognition Tests. AP Report 100, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham, January 1981.
Easterby, R.S. & Graydon, I.R. (1981)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols: ISO Test: 1979/80 Series. Part I: Appropriateness Ranking Tests. AP Report 99, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham, January 1981.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1976)
The Perception of Relative Hazard Levels of Cosumer Products: An Empirical Field Study. AP Report 62, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1977)
Safety Labelling and Consumer Products: Field Studies of Sign Recognition. AP Report 76, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston, Birmingham, December 1977.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1977)
Safety Labelling of Consumer Products: Shapes and Colour Code Stereotypes in the Design of Signs. AP Report 75, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston, Birmingham, December 1977.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1977)
Safety Labelling of Consumer Products - Interim Report on Shape and Colour Coding of Signs. AP Report 56, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston, Birmingham, March 1977.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1981)
Field Testing of Consumer Safety Signs: The Comprehension of Pictorially Presented Messages. Applied Ergonomics, 1981, 12, 143-152.
Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1976)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols, ISO Tests: 1975 Series. AP Report 60, Department of Applied Psychology, University of Aston, Birmingham, March 1976.
Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.) (1984)
Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Easterby, R.S., Hakiel, S.R., & Graydon, I.R. (1980)
Safety Sign Conspicuity. The Effect of Sign Size and Position on Detection. AP Report 89, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham.
ETSI ETR 113 (1993)
Human Factors (HF); Results of an Evaluation Study of Pictograms for Point-to-point Video-telephony. Sophia Antipolis: European Telecommunications Standards Institute.
Evans, D. W., & Ginsburg, A. P. (1985)
Contrast sensitivity predicts age-related differences in highway-sign discriminability. Human factors, 27(6), 637–642.
Familant, M.E. & Detweiler, M.C. (1993)
Iconic Reference: Evolving Perspectives and an Organizing Framework.
Int.J.Man-Machine Studies, 39, 705-728.
Fiori, S. (2017)
Public Information Symbols in Tourism: importance, challenges, dimensions and empirical research about pictograms. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia. 66.
FMC Corporation (1985)
FMC, Product Safety Sign and Label System, 3rd ed., Santa Clara, California.
FMC Corporation (1985)
Product Safety Signs and Label System (national and international use of pictorials and symbols).
Fonseca, L. & Bryant, K. (1960)
Comprehension of Pictorial Symbols: An Experiment in Rural Brazil. Department of Agricultural Journalism, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Bulletin 30, April 1960.
Forbes, T.W. (1964)
Predicting Attention-Gaining Characteristics of Highway Traffic Signs: Measurement Technique. Human Factors, 6, 1964, 371-374.
Foster, J.J. (1994)
Evaluating the effectiveness of public information symbols. Information Design Journal, 7, 1994, 183-202.
Foster, J.J., Adams, A.S. & Koyama, K. (2013)
A modern approach to the testing of graphical symbols. Signs and Symbols for Workplace and Public Use. 135-146.
Foster, J.J. & Afzalnia, M.R. (2005)
International assessment of judged symbol comprehensibility. International Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000258
Foster, J., Koyama, K. & Adams, A. (2010)
Paper and on-line testing of graphical access symbols in three countries using the ISO 9186 comprehension test. Information Design Journal. 18. 107-117.
Franklin Research Center (1978)
Symbol Signs: The Testing of Passenger/Pedestrian Oriented Symbols for Use in Transportation-related Facilities. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, DOT-OS-60071.
Frantz, J.P. (1992)
Effect of Location, Procedural Explicitness, and Presentation Format on User Processing of and Compliance With Product Warnings and Instructions.
Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.
Frantz, J.P. (1993)
Effect of Location and Presentation Format on Attention to and Compliance with Product Warnings and Instructions.
Journal of Safety Research 24, 131-154.
Frantz, J.P., Miller, J.M. & Lehto, M.R. (1994)
Must the Context be Considered When Applying Generic Safety Symbols:
A Case Study in Flammable Contact Adhesives.
Frascara, J. (1982)
Recognition Test for Public Information Symbols. Report Submitted to Humanities and Social Science Research Grants Committee of the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
Frascara, J. & Yau (1986)
Evaluation and Development of Safety Symbols - Part II Evaluation of Safety Symbols, Appropriateness Ranking Tests and Comprehension Recognition Tests. Edmonton, Canada: University of Alberta, Department of Art and Design.
Freedman, M. (1978)
Symbol Signs - The Testing of Passenger/Pedestrian Oriented Symbols for Use in Transportation Related Facilities. Washington, D.C.: Department of Transportation, DOT-OS-60071, December 1978.
Friedman, K. (1988)
The Effect of Adding Symbols to Written Warning Labels on User Behavior and Recall. Human Factors (30)4, 507-515.
Galer, M. (1980)
An Ergonomics Approach to the Problem of High Vehicles Striking Low Bridges. Applied Ergonomics 11(1), 43-46.
Garbo, M.J., Comeau, N.A. & Swanson, K.A. (1988)
OSHA Hazard Communication Standard. Helping Prevent Chemical Hazards. AAOHN Journal. 36(9), 366-371.
Gebhardt, E. (1972)
Überprüfung eines visuellen Zeichensystems. Experimentelle Diplomarbeit, Technische Universität Braunschweig.
Gehringer, J. (1979)
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